Detailed instructions for use are in the User's Guide.
ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS
SBIG
Operating Manual
CCD Camera Models ST-7XE/XME, ST-8XE, ST-9XE, ST-10XE/XME and ST-2000XM/XCM With High Speed USB Interface
Santa Barbara Instrument Group
147A Castilian Drive Santa Barbara, CA 93117 Phone (805) 571-7244 · Fax (805) 571-1147 Web: · Email:
Note: This equipment has been tested and found to comply with the limits for a Class B digital device pursuant to Part 15 of the FCC Rules. These limits are designed to provide reasonable protection against harmful interference in a residential installation. This equipment generates, uses, and can radiate radio frequency energy and if not installed and used in accordance with the instructions, may cause harmful interference to radio communications. However, there is no guarantee that interference will not occur in a particular installation. If this equipment does cause harmful interference to radio or television reception, which can be determined by turning the equipment off and on, the user is encouraged to try to correct the interference by one or more of the following measures: · · · · Reorient or relocate the receiving antenna. Increase the separation between the receiver and the equipment. Connect the equipment into an outlet on a circuit different from that to which the receiver is connected. Consult the dealer or an experienced radio/TV technician for help.
Shielded I/O cables must be used when operating this equipment. You are also warned, that any changes to this certified device will void your legal right to operate it. OPERATION Manual for ST-XE/ST-8XE/ST-9XE/ST-10XE/ST-10XME/ST-2000XM Revision 1.4 June, 2004
Section 1 - Introduction
1. 1.1. 1.2.
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 3 Getting Started.................................................................................................................. 4 Installing the USB Drivers for the First Time............................................................... 4 1.2.1. Installing the CCDOps and the Driver Checker ...................................... 5 1.2.2.1. Add New Hardware Wizard for Windows XP Users ............................. 6 1.2.2.2. Add New Hardware Wizard for Window 95/98/Me Users ............... 13 1.2.2.3. Add New Hardware Wizard for Windows 2000 Users ........................ 18 1.2.3. Getting Started with CCDOPS ....................................................................................... 22 1.2.4. To try some functions with sample images:................................................................. 22 1.2.5. Capturing Images with the CCD Camera .................................................................... 22 2. 2.1. 2.2. 2.3. 2.4. Introduction to CCD Cameras .................................................................................... 25 Cameras in General ....................................................................................................... 25 How CCD Detectors Work ........................................................................................... 25 2.2.1. Full Frame and Frame Transfer / Interline CCDs ................................. 26 Camera Hardware Architecture .................................................................................. 26 CCD Special Requirements........................................................................................... 29 2.4.1. Cooling......................................................................................................... 29 2.4.2. Double Correlated Sampling Readout .................................................... 30 2.4.3. Dark Frames ................................................................................................ 30 2.4.4. Flat Field Images......................................................................................... 30 2.4.5. Pixels vs. Film Grains................................................................................. 31 2.4.6. Guiding ........................................................................................................ 32 Electronic Imaging ......................................................................................................... 32 Black and White vs. Color............................................................................................. 33 At the Telescope with a CCD Camera....................................................................... 35 Step by Step with a CCD Camera ................................................................................ 35 Attaching the Camera to the Telescope ...................................................................... 35 Establishing a Communications Link ......................................................................... 36 Focusing the CCD Camera ........................................................................................... 36 Finding and Centering the Object ............................................................................... 38 Taking an Image............................................................................................................. 38 Displaying the Image .................................................................................................... 38 Processing the Image ..................................................................................................... 39 Advanced Capabilities .................................................................................................. 39 3.9.1. Crosshairs Mode (Photometry and Astrometry) ................................... 39 3.9.2. Sub-Frame Readout in Focus .................................................................... 39 3.9.3. Track and Accumulate............................................................................... 40 3.9.4. Autoguiding and Self Guiding ................................................................. 40 3.9.5. Auto Grab .................................................................................................... 41 3.9.6. Color Imaging ............................................................................................. 41 Camera Hardware ......................................................................................................... 43 System Components ...................................................................................................... 43 Connecting the Power ................................................................................................... 43 Connecting to the Computer ........................................................................................ 43 Connecting the Relay Port to the Telescope............................................................... 43
2.5. 2.6. 3. 3.1. 3.2. 3.3. 3.4. 3.5. 3.6. 3.7. 3.8. 3.9.
4. 4.1. 4.2. 4.3. 4.4.
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Section 1 - Introduction 4.4.1 Using Mechanical Relays............................................................................... 44 Modular Family of CCD Cameras............................................................................... 46 Connecting accessories to the Camera........................................................................ 50 Battery Operation........................................................................................................... 51 Advanced Imaging Techniques ................................................................................. 53 Lunar and Planetary Imaging ...................................................................................... 53 Deep Sky Imaging.......................................................................................................... 53 Terrestrial Imaging ........................................................................................................ 53 Taking a Good Flat Field............................................................................................... 54 Building a Library of Dark Frames.............................................................................. 54 Changing the Camera Resolution................................................................................ 54 Flat Fielding Track and Accumulate Images ............................................................. 55 Tracking Functions ........................................................................................................ 56 Accessories for your CCD Camera............................................................................. 59 Water Cooling................................................................................................................. 59 Tri-color Imaging ........................................................................................................... 60 Camera Lens Adapters and Eyepiece Projection....................................................... 60 Focal Reducers................................................................................................................ 60 AO-7 and Lucy-Richardson Software ......................................................................... 60 SGS - Self-Guided Spectrograph .................................................................................. 60 Third Party Products and Services .............................................................................. 61 6.7.1. Windows Software ..................................................................................... 61 6.7.2. Image Processing Software ....................................................................... 61 6.7.3. Getting Hardcopy....................................................................................... 61 SBIG Technical Support ................................................................................................ 61 Common Problems ....................................................................................................... 63 Glossary .......................................................................................................................... 65 Appendix A - Connector and Cables......................................................................... 69 Connector Pinouts for the AO7/CFW8/SCOPE port:.............................................. 69 Connector Pinouts for the power jack:........................................................................ 69 Connector Pinouts for the I2C AUX port:................................................................... 69 SBIG Tracking Interface Cable (TIC-78)...................................................................... 70 Appendix B - Maintenance.......................................................................................... 71 Cleaning the CCD and the Window ........................................................................... 71 Regenerating the Desiccant .......................................................................................... 71 Appendix C - Capturing a Good Flat Field .............................................................. 72 Technique ........................................................................................................................ 72 Appendix D - Use and Maintenance of the Cooling Booster ............................... 73 Appendix E Third Party Vendors Supporting SBIG Products.......................... 75
4.5. 4.6 4.7 5. 5.1. 5.2. 5.3. 5.4. 5.5. 5.6. 5.7. 5.8. 6. 6.1. 6.2. 6.3. 6.4. 6.5. 6.6. 6.7.
6.8. 7. 8. A. A.1. A.2. A.3. A.4. B. B.1. B.2. C. C.1. D. E.
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Section 1 - Introduction
1.
Introduction
Congratulations and thank you for buying one of Santa Barbara Instrument Group's CCD cameras. The model ST-7XE/XME, ST-8XE, ST-9XE, ST-10XE/XME, and ST-2000XM/XCM are SBIG's fifth generation CCD cameras and represent the state of the art in CCD camera systems with their low noise and advanced capabilities, including Kodak's new Blue Enhanced E series of CCDs and high speed USB interface. We feel that these cameras will expand your astronomy experience by being able to easily take images like the ones you've seen in books and magazines, of structure never seen through the eyepiece. SBIG CCD cameras offer convenience, high sensitivity, and advanced image processing techniques that film just can't match. While CCDs will probably never replace film in its large format, CCDs allow a wide range of scientific measurements and have established a whole new field of amateur astronomy that is growing by leaps and bounds. These cameras include several exciting new features: improved self-guiding (US Patent 5,525,793), high speed USB interface, improved cooling design and more. These cameras have two CCDs inside, one for guiding and a large one for imaging. The low noise of the read out electronics virtually guarantees that a usable guide star will be within the field of the guiding CCD for telescopes with F/numbers F/6.3 or faster. The new cooling design is capable of performance similar to that which used to require an optional second stage cooling booster. The relay output plugs directly into most recent commercial telescope drives and is easily modifiable to virtually any drive system. As a result, you can take hour long guided exposures with ease, with no differential deflection of guide scope relative to main telescope, and no radial guider setup hassles, all from the computer keyboard. This capability, coupled with the phenomenal sensitivity of the CCD, will allow the user to acquire observatory class images of deep sky images with modest apertures! The technology also makes image stabilization possible through our AO-7, or self-guided spectroscopy with our SGS. The new ST-X series of cameras incorporate the following design improvements over their parallel based predecessors: Uses High Speed USB vs. Parallel Port for 10X to 15X faster downloads. Adds a new I2C bi-directional AUX port for future use. LEDs on the Digital Board show Relay Activations (helpful for troubleshooting). New Heat Exchanger with Water Circulation Capability built-in. No firmware ROM to update, software uploads to camera at boot-up. New capabilities can be added to the camera by replacing the loader driver. New Boot sequence, LED flashes and fan comes on when firmware upload is complete. LED flashes when initializing shutter. Mechanical/electronic design work to reduce shutter errors and stray light. TC237 autoguider CCD added to the ST-8XE, ST-9XE, ST-10XE and ST-10XME. Premier software, CCDSoftV5 and TheSky included with each camera. CCDOPS version 5 camera control software included with major improvements o Support for USB cameras o Support for Ethernet (Ethernet to Parallel) for parallel cameras o Read FITS files o Save in several formats (including ASCII format that imports to Excel). o Multiple images open at once o New universal drivers Page 3
Section 1 - Introduction o o o o o o o Works with all 32-bit Windows OS (95/98/Me/NT/2000/XP). Version 5 (Gold Icon) can co-exist with Version 4 (Black Icon). Focus Mode Dialog has big numbers for peak brightness to aid focusing. Added 1xN, 2xN and 3N readout modes to ST-7/8/9/10/1001 Magnified preview in crosshairs window Sharpen preview in contrast dialog. Dockable Icon bar.
1.1.
Getting Started.
This manual describes the ST-7XE/XME, ST-8XE, ST-9XE, ST-10XE/XME and ST-2000XM/XCM CCD Camera Systems from Santa Barbara Instrument Group. The first section contains USB driver installation instructions. The USB driver installation process must be completed by anyone installing an SBIG USB camera for the first time on a particular computer. If you wish to run your SBIG USB camera from more than one computer, you must go through the USB driver installation process for each computer you intend to use. For users new to the field of CCD Astronomy, Sections 2, 3 and 4 offer introductory material about CCD Cameras and their applications in Astronomy. Users who are familiar with CCD cameras may wish to skip section 2 and browse through sections 3 and 4, reading any new material. Thoroughly experienced SBIG customers may wish to jump right to the separate Software Manual, which gives detailed and specific information about the SBIG software. Sections 5 and 6 offer hints and information about advanced imaging techniques and accessories for CCD imaging that you may wish to read after your initial telescope use of the CCD camera. Finally, section 7 may be helpful if you experience problems with your camera, and the Appendices provide a wealth of technical information about these systems.
1.2.
Installing the USB Drivers for the First Time
If you are installing an SBIG USB camera for the first time use this section to walk you through the driver installation process. To operate the camera you must first install camera control software onto your computer or laptop. Your camera comes with two programs: CCDOPS from SBIG and CCDSoftV5, which was jointly written by Software Bisque and SBIG. CCDSoftV5 is a very comprehensive program that incorporates many of the camera control functions of CCDOPS. However, because we use CCDOPS solely to develop and test our cameras we are able to post more frequent updates for CCDOPS at our web site for free download. You can use either program to control the camera but we suggest starting with CCDOPS to install the USB drivers and to make sure everything is working properly and then move to CCDSoftV5 when you are more familiar with the operations of the camera. Follow the instructions below to install and run the CCDOPS software and display and process sample images found at our web site. Please follow these directions IN SEQUENCE. Do not connect the camera to the PC or turn it on until instructed to do so below. USB drivers can be difficult to install if you don't follow the instructions.
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Section 1 - Introduction
1.2.1. Installing the CCDOps and the Driver Checker
The first thing you should do in all cases is to install CCDOps version 5 and the Driver Checker utility. This is relatively simple: 1. Make sure the camera is not connected to the computer. You will do this later. 2. Run the CCDOps Installer. It can be found in the CCDOps directory of the CD-ROM that came with your camera. Follow the onscreen instructions to complete the installation. 3. First make sure you are the Administrator or have Administrator privileges if you're running under Windows 2000, or Windows XP. On Windows XP Home edition you are the administrator so you don't have to worry about that. Next run the Driver Checker Installer. It can be found in the Driver Checker folder of the CD-ROM. 4. Towards the end of the Driver Checker installation the installer will run the utility. This utility checks to make sure you have the latest version of the SBIG camera drivers installed on your system. When the SBIGDriverChecker utility is run you'll see a dialog like:
If you have previously installed CCDOPS you'll see some entries in the table. Most likely one or more drivers is not installed or is not up to date. Also if this is the first time you've run the Driver Checker you may get a warning something like "The sbigudrv service can not be found". Just ignore this error.
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Section 1 - Introduction 5. Using the Driver Checker to update your drivers is a two-step process: A. If you have an internet connection, Click on the Download button then follow the instructions to download the current drivers from SBIG's Servers. If you don't have an internet connection on this machine then make sure you have downloaded the latest Driver Checker Installer from SBIG's web site, copied it to this machine and run it. B. Whether you have an internet connection or not then click the Update button. This will copy the current drivers to your system and make sure they are properly installed. Some new computers without parallel ports will report that the SBIGUDRV.SYS was not started. Don't worry about that. The SBIGUDRV.SYS is the parallel port camera driver and is not use with USB cameras. You may be asked to reboot your system as well. If so, click Done and do so. Otherwise simply click Done. 6. Follow the instruction in Sections 1.2.2.1, 1.2.2.2 or 1.2.2.3 below depending on the version of Windows you have on your computer.
1.2.2.1. Add New Hardware Wizard for Windows XP Users
1. With the camera disconnected from the computer, plug in the power to the camera and if your power supply has a power switch turn on the power to the camera. 2. Plug the camera into the computer with the supplied USB cable. The computer will then present you with the Found New Hardware Wizard. Click the "Install from a list..." radio button then click the Next button.
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Section 1 - Introduction 3. As shown below, click the "Search for the best driver..." radio button then check the "Include this location..." checkbox then click the Browse button.
You will see the Browse for Folder dialog shown below:
Navigate through the directory structure of you hard drive to the: My Computer\C:\Program Files\SBIG\Driver Checker\SBIG Drivers
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Section 1 - Introduction directory. Expand each section by clicking on the "+" next to the name. For example scroll to the top and click the "+" next to My Computer, then click the "+" next to C:, etc. Finally click on the SBIG Drivers folder to select it (it will turn blue as shown below) then click OK.
You'll then be back in the Found New Hardware Wizard. Click the Next button.
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Section 1 - Introduction 4. Windows will show the dialog below while it is copying the driver:
5. You may be presented with the dialog below warning you the SBIG USB Loader driver has not passed the Windows Logo testing procedure. At this point click the Continue Anyway button.
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Section 1 - Introduction 6. Windows will continue installing the driver as shown in the dialog below:
7. Windows will finish installing the SBIG USB Loader driver as shown in the dialog below
Hit the Finish button. At this point the Camera's Fan and LED should come on. You are half-way through the installation of the drivers. Page 10
Section 1 - Introduction 8. Again you will be presented with the Found New Hardware wizard for the SBIG USB Camera driver as shown in the dialog below. Repeat steps 3 through 7 for this driver just like you did before.
9. At one point you may be presented with the following dialog:
Select the top entry and hit the Next button. When you're all done if you open the System Control Panel from the Start Menu, select the Hardware tab then click the Device Manager button and finally expand the Universal Serial Bus Controllers section at the bottom you should see the SBIG USB Camera entry as shown below:
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Section 1 - Introduction
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Section 1 - Introduction
1.2.2.2. Add New Hardware Wizard for Window 95/98/Me Users
1. With the camera disconnected from the computer, plug in the power to the camera and if your power supply has a power switch turn on the power to the camera. 2. Plug the camera into the computer with the supplied USB cable. The computer will then present you with the Found New Hardware Wizard shown below:
Click the Next button.
3. Click "Search for the best driver.." then click the Next button as shown below:
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Section 1 - Introduction
4. Uncheck all the options except "Specify a location" as shown below then click the Browse
button
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Section 1 - Introduction 5. Navigate through the Browser window to the My Computer\C:\Program Files\SBIG\Driver Checker\SBIG Drivers directory as shown below. Expand each section by clicking on the "+" next to the name. For example scroll to the top and click the "+" next to My Computer, then click the "+" next to C:, etc.:
Click on the SBIG Drivers folder until it is highlighted as shown above then click the OK button. This will get you back to the dialog shown above in step 4 but with the location filled out. Click the Next button.
6. You'll see the dialog below. Click the Next button.
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Section 1 - Introduction
7. Windows will spin for a while and then present you with the dialog below. Click the Finish
button and you're done. The SBIG cameras actually use two drivers and after you click Finish the system will automatically install the second driver. At this point the Fan and LED should come on in the camera.
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Section 1 - Introduction
8. If you have any question about whether the drivers were installed correctly open the Device
Manager tab of the System Control Panel. Click the "View devices by type" button and expand the "Universal Serial Bus controllers" section by clicking the "+" to the left. You should see something like the dialog below where we have highlighted the SBIG USB Camera in red outline:
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Section 1 - Introduction
1.2.2.3. Add New Hardware Wizard for Windows 2000 Users
1. With the camera disconnected from the computer, plug in the power to the camera and if your power supply has a power switch turn on the power to the camera.
2. Plug the camera into the computer with the supplied USB cable. The computer will then
present you with the Found New Hardware Wizard shown below. Click the Next button.
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Section 1 - Introduction 3. Click the "Search for suitable driver..." radio button as shown below:
then click the Next button. 4. Uncheck all the options other than "Specify a location" as shown below:
then click the Next button.
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Section 1 - Introduction
5. As shown below click the Browse button then navigate to the
My Computer\C:\Program Files\SBIG\Driver Checker\SBIG Drivers directory. Expand each section by clicking on the "+" next to the name. For example scroll to the top and click the "+" next to My Computer, then click the "+" next to C:, etc. Click on the SBIG Drivers folder to highlight it then Click OK in the Find File dialog then click OK back at the New Hardware Wizard.
6. Windows will find the driver and present you with the dialog below:
Click the Next button.
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Section 1 - Introduction
7. Windows will spin for a while, then present you with the dialog below. Click the Finish
button and you're done. The SBIG cameras actually use two drivers and after you click Finish the system will automatically install the second driver.
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Section 1 - Introduction
1.2.3. Getting Started with CCDOPS
· Use Camera->Establish Com Link. After a few seconds should see "Link:[ST-10]USB" in lower-right corner of CCDOPS main window where ST-10 is the camera model. You are now talking to the camera. From this point you should follow the software instructions / help menus to Set Up the camera's cooling, Focus, Grab images, etc.
·
1.2.4. To try some functions with sample images:
· Double-click on the CCDOPS icon to launch the program. · Use the Open command in the File menu to load one of the sample images. A window showing the exposure time, etc. will appear. Click in it to make it disappear. The image will show up in its own window. · · Try using the crosshairs. Use the Crosshairs command in the Display menu. Use the mouse to move the crosshair around in the image and see the pixel values.
· Close the crosshairs and try inverting the image. Click the Invert item in the Contrast window. · Try the photo display mode. Use the Photo Mode command in the Display menu. Click the mouse to return to the menus. · Load up the other sample images and display them using the photo display mode. You have to close any existing image first. · If you find that the display is too dark or bright, try setting Auto Contrast in the Contrast window or adjust the background and range parameters to achieve the best display. You may have to hit the Apply button in the Contrast window to see changes in the Background and Range
1.2.5. Capturing Images with the CCD Camera
Unfortunately there really aren't many shortcuts you can take when using the CCD camera to capture images. The instructions below refer you to various sections of the manual. · · · · Find some relatively bright object like M51, the Ring Nebula (M57) or the Dumbbell Nebula (M27) (refer to section 3.5). Take a 1 minute exposure using the Grab command with the Dark frame option set to Also (refer to Section 3.6). Display the image (refer to Section 3.7). Process the image (refer to Section 3.8).
You can use the SBIG Test Lens to take indoor test exposures and get familiar with the camera operation. Also, if you happened to have purchased a camera lens adapter for your CCD Camera you can also use that to take test images during the day:
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Section 1 - Introduction Camera lens daytime exposure guidelines: · · · · · Close the F stop all the way to F/16 or F/22. Set the focus based upon the object and the markings on the lens. Take a short (<1 second) exposure with the Grab command. Display the image. Process the image.
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Section 2 - Introduction to CCD Cameras
2.
Introduction to CCD Cameras
This section introduces new users to CCD (Charge Coupled Device) cameras and their capabilities and to the field of CCD Astronomy and Electronic Imaging.
2.1.
Cameras in General
The CCD is very good at the most difficult astronomical imaging problem: imaging small, faint objects. For such scenes long film exposures are typically required. The CCD based system has several advantages over film: greater speed, quantitative accuracy, ability to increase contrast and subtract sky background with a few keystrokes, the ability to co-add multiple images without tedious dark room operations, wider spectral range, and instant examination of the images at the telescope for quality. Film has the advantages of a much larger format, color, and independence of the wall plug (the SBIG family of cameras can be battery operated in conjunction with a laptop computer, though, using a power inverter). After some use you will find that film is best for producing sensational large area color pictures, and the CCD is best for planets, faint objects, and general scientific work such as variable star monitoring and position determination.
2.2.
How CCD Detectors Work
The basic function of the CCD detector is to convert an incoming photon of light to an electron which is stored in the detector until it is read out, thus producing data which your computer can display as an image. It doesn't have to be displayed as an image. It could just as well be displayed as a spreadsheet with groups of numbers in each cell representing the number of electrons produced at each pixel. These numbers are displayed by your computer as shades of gray for each pixel site on your screen thus producing the image you see. How this is accomplished is eloquently described in a paper by James Janesick and Tom Elliott of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory: "Imagine an array of buckets covering a field. After a rainstorm, the buckets are sent by conveyor belts to a metering station where the amount of water in each bucket is measured. Then a computer would take these data and display a picture of how much rain fell on each part of the field. In a CCD the "raindrops" are photons, the "buckets" the pixels, the "conveyor belts" the CCD shift registers and the "metering system" an on-chip amplifier. Technically speaking the CCD must perform four tasks in generating an image. These functions are 1) charge generation, 2) charge collection, 3) charge transfer, and 4) charge detection. The first operation relies on a physical process known as the photoelectric effect - when photons or particles strikes certain materials free electrons are liberated...In the second step the photoelectrons are collected in the nearest discrete collecting sites or pixels. The collection sites are defined by an array of electrodes, called gates, formed on the CCD. The third operation, charge transfer, is accomplished by manipulating the voltage on the gates in a systematic way so the signal electrons move down the vertical registers from one pixel to the next in a conveyor-belt like fashion. At the end of each column is a horizontal register of pixels. This register collects a line at a time and then Page 25
Section 2 - Introduction to CCD Cameras transports the charge packets in a serial manner to an on-chip amplifier. The final operating step, charge detection, is when individual charge packets are converted to an output voltage. The voltage for each pixel can be amplified offchip and digitally encoded and stored in a computer to be reconstructed and displayed on a television monitor."1
Output
Readout Register Y=1 Amplifier
Y=N X=1
Figure 2.1 - CCD Structure
X=M
2.2.1. Full Frame and Frame Transfer / Interline CCDs
In the ST-7XE, ST-8XE, ST-9XE, ST-10XE and ST-10XME, the CCD is read out electronically by shifting each row of pixels into a readout register at the Y=0 position of the CCD (shown in Figure 2.1), and then shifting the row out through an amplifier at the X=0 position. The entire array shifts up one row when a row is shifted into the readout register, and a blank row is inserted at the bottom. The electromechanical shutter built into the camera covers the CCD during the readout to prevent streaking of the image. Without a shutter the image would be streaked due to the fact that the pixels continue to collect light as they are being shifted out towards the readout register. CCDs with a single active area are called Full Frame CCDs. For reference, the ST-5C, ST-237A, STV and guiding CCDs in the ST-X series of cameras use a different type of CCD, which is known as a Frame Transfer CCD. In these devices all active pixels are shifted very quickly into a pixel array screened from the light by a metal layer, and then read out. This makes it possible to take virtually streak-free images without a shutter. This feature is typically called an electronic shutter. The interline CCD used in the ST-2000XM is similar to a frame transfer except that the protected pixels are interlaced with the active pixels.
2.3.
Camera Hardware Architecture
This section describes the ST-7XE, ST-8XE, ST-9XE, ST-10XE, ST-10XME and ST-2000XM CCD cameras from a systems standpoint. It describes the elements that comprise a CCD camera and the functions they provide. Please refer to Figure 2.2 below as you read through this section.
1
"History and Advancements of Large Area Array Scientific CCD Imagers", James Janesick, Tom Elliott. Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, CCD Advanced Development Group.
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Section 2 - Introduction to CCD Cameras
Figure 2.2 - CCD System Block Diagram
As you can see from Figure 2.2, the ST-7XE, ST-8XE, ST-9XE, ST-10XE, ST-10XME and ST2000XM are completely self-contained. Unlike our previous products, the ST-7XE, ST-8XE, ST9XE, ST-10XE, ST-10XME and ST-2000XM contain all the electronics in the optical head. There is no external CPU like the ST-5C, ST-237, ST-6 and STV. At the "front end" of any CCD camera is the CCD sensor itself. As we have already learned, CCDs are a solid-state image sensor organized in a rectangular array of regularly spaced rows and columns. The ST-7XE, ST-8XE, ST-9XE, ST-10XE, ST-10XME and ST-2000XM use two CCDs, one for imaging (Kodak KAF series) and one for tracking (TI TC211 or TC237).
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Section 2 - Introduction to CCD Cameras Table 2.1 below lists some interesting aspects of the CCDs used in the various SBIG cameras. Array Number of CCD Dimensions Pixels TC211 2.6 x 2.6 mm 192 x 164 TC237 4.9 x 3.7 mm 657 x 495 TC255 3.2 x 2.4 mm 320 x 240 TC237 4.9 x 3.7 mm 640 x 480 TC237 4.7 x 3.0 mm 320 x 200 TC241 8.6 x 6.5 mm 375 x 242 KAF0401E 6.9 x 4.6 mm 765 x 510 KAF1602E 13.8 x 9.2 mm 1530 x 1020 KAF0261E 10.2 x 10.2 mm 512 x 512 KAF3200E 14.9 x 10.0 mm 2184 x 1472 KAF1001E 24.6 x 24.6 mm 1024 x 1024 KAI2000M 11.8 x 8.9 mm 1600 x 1200 Table 2.1 - Camera CCD Configurations
Camera TC211 Tracking CCD TC237 Tracking CCD ST-5C ST-237A STV/STV Deluxe ST-6B ST-7E/XE ST-8E/XE ST-9E/XE ST-10E/XE/XME ST-1001E ST-2000XM
Pixel Sizes 13.75 x 16 µ 7.4 x 7.4 µ 10 x 10 µ 7.4 x 7.4 µ 14.8 x 14.8 µ 23 x 27 µ 9x9µ 9x9µ 20 x 20 µ 6.8 x 6.8 µ 24 x 24 µ 7.4 x 7.4 µ
The CCD is cooled with a solid-state a thermoelectric (TE) cooler. The TE cooler pumps heat out of the CCD and dissipates it into a heat sink, which forms part of the optical head's mechanical housing. In the ST-7XE, ST-8XE, ST-9XE, ST-10XE, ST-10XME and ST-2000XM cameras this waste heat is dumped into the air using a new heat exchanger and a small fan. The heat exchanger is also capable of water circulation for additional efficiency if needed in hot climates. An inlet and outlet are provided at the back of the camera head for passing water through the heat exchanger. Only a very small flow is required and an ordinary aquarium pump is sufficient if it will pull the flow up the length of tubing you might require at your installation. An optional 110VAC pump and tubing are also available from SBIG. Since the CCD is cooled below 0°C, some provision must be made to prevent frost from forming on the CCD. The ST-7XE, ST-8XE, ST-9XE, ST-10XE, ST-10XME and ST-2000XM have the CCD/TE Cooler mounted in a windowed hermetic chamber sealed with an O-Ring. The hermetic chamber does not need to be evacuated, another "ease of use" feature we employ in the design of our cameras. Using a rechargeable desiccant in the chamber keeps the humidity low, forcing the dew point below the cold stage temperature. Other elements in the self contained ST-7XE, ST-8XE, ST-9XE, ST-10XE, ST-10XME and ST-2000XM include the preamplifier and an electromechanical shutter. The shutter makes taking dark frames a simple matter of pushing a button on the computer and provides streakfree readout. Timing of exposures in ST-7XE, ST-8XE, ST-9XE, ST-10XE, ST-10XME and ST2000XM cameras is controlled by this shutter. The Clock Drivers and Analog to Digital Converter interface to the CCD. The Clock Drivers convert the logic-level signals from the micro controller to the voltage levels and sequences required by the CCD. Clocking the CCD transfers charge in the array and is used to clear the array or read it out. The Analog to Digital Converter (A/D) digitizes the data in the CCD for storage in the Host Computer. The micro controller is used to regulate the CCD's temperature by varying the drive to the TE cooler. The external Power Supply provides +5V and ±12V to the cameras. Finally, the Page 28
Section 2 - Introduction to CCD Cameras cameras contain a TTL level telescope interface port to control the telescope and the optional CFW-6A motorized color filter wheel. Although not part of the CCD Camera itself, the Host Computer and Software are an integral part of the system. SBIG provides software for the ST-7XE, ST-8XE, ST-9XE, ST-10XE, ST-10XME and ST-2000XM cameras for the IBM PC and Compatible computers running Windows 95/98/2000/Me/NT/XP. The software allows image acquisition, image processing, and auto guiding with ease of use and professional quality. Many man-years and much customer feedback have gone into the SBIG software and it is unmatched in its capabilities.
2.4.
CCD Special Requirements
This section describes the unique features of CCD cameras and the special requirements that CCD systems impose.
2.4.1. Cooling
Random readout noise and noise due to dark current combine to place a lower limit on the ability of the CCD to detect faint light sources. SBIG has optimized the ST-7XE, ST-8XE, ST9XE, ST-10XE, ST-10XME and ST-2000XM to achieve readout noises below 20 electrons rms for two reads (light - dark). This will not limit most users. The noise due to the dark current is equal to the square root of the number of electrons accumulated during the integration time. For these cameras, the dark current is not significant until it accumulates to more than 280 electrons. Dark current is thermally generated in the device itself, and can be reduced by cooling. All CCDs have dark current, which can cause each pixel to fill with electrons in only a few seconds at room temperature even in the absence of light. By cooling the CCD, the dark current and corresponding noise is reduced, and longer exposures are possible. In fact, for roughly every 5 to 6° C of additional cooling, the dark current in the CCD is reduced to half. The ST-7XE, ST-8XE, ST-9XE, ST-10XE, ST-10XME and ST-2000XM have a single stage TE cooler, efficient heat exchanger and water circulation capability. A temperature sensing thermistor on the CCD mount monitors the temperature (Earlier parallel models offered a cooling booster which used a second TE cooler but we feel that the new design provides similar performance without the need for a second power supply). The micro controller controls the temperature at a user-determined value for long periods. As a result, exposures hours long are possible, and saturation of the CCD by the sky background typically limits the exposure time. At 0 °C the dark current in the ST-7XE, ST-8XE and ST-10XE, high-resolution mode, is only 60 electrons per minute! The ST-9XE, with bigger pixels, has roughly 8 times this amount of dark current due largely to the larger pixel area but also due to the inherent higher bulk dark current in the devices. The sky background conditions also increase the noise in images, and in fact, as far as the CCD is concerned, there is no difference between the noise caused by dark current and that from sky background. If your sky conditions are causing photoelectrons to be generated at the rate of 100 e-/pixel/sec, for example, increasing the cooling beyond the point where the dark current is roughly half that amount will not improve the quality of the image. This very reason is why deep sky filters are so popular with astrophotography. They reduce the sky background level, increasing the contrast of dim objects. They will improve CCD images from very light polluted sights.
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Section 2 - Introduction to CCD Cameras
2.4.2. Double Correlated Sampling Readout
During readout, the charge stored in a pixel is stored temporarily on a capacitor. This capacitor converts the optically generated charge to a voltage level for the output amplifier to sense. When the readout process for the previous pixel is completed, the capacitor is drained and the next charge shifted, read, and so on. However, each time the capacitor is drained, some residual charge remains. This residual charge is actually the dominant noise source in CCD readout electronics. This residual charge may be measured before the next charge is shifted in, and the actual difference calculated. This is called double correlated sampling. It produces more accurate data at the expense of slightly longer read out times (two measurements are made instead of one). The ST-7XE, ST-8XE, ST-9XE, ST-10XE, ST-10XME and ST-2000XM utilize double correlated sampling to produce the lowest possible readout noise. At 10e- to 15e- rms per read these cameras are unsurpassed in performance.
2.4.3. Dark Frames
No matter how much care is taken to reduce all sources of unwanted noise, some will remain. Fortunately, however, due to the nature of electronic imaging and the use of computers for storing and manipulating data, this remaining noise can be drastically reduced by the subtraction of a dark frame from the raw light image. A dark frame is simply an image taken at the same temperature and for the same duration as the light frame with the source of light to the CCD blocked so that you get a "picture" of the dark. This dark frame will contain an image of the noise caused by dark current (thermal noise) and other fixed pattern noise such as read out noise. When the dark frame is subtracted from the light frame, this pattern noise is removed from the resulting image. The improvement is dramatic for exposures of more than a minute, eliminating the many "hot" pixels one often sees across the image, which are simply pixels with higher dark current than average.
2.4.4. Flat Field Images
Another way to compensate for certain unwanted optical effects is to take a "flat field image" and use it to correct for variations in pixel response uniformity across the area of your darksubtracted image. You take a flat field image of a spatially uniform source and use the measured variations in the flat field image to correct for the same unwanted variations in your images. The Flat Field command allows you to correct for the effects of vignetting and nonuniform pixel responsivity across the CCD array. The Flat Field command is very useful for removing the effects of vignetting that may occur when using a field compression lens and the fixed pattern responsivity variations present in all CCDs. It is often difficult to visually tell the difference between a corrected and uncorrected image if there is little vignetting, so you must decide whether to take the time to correct any or all of your dark-subtracted images. It is always recommended for images that are intended for accurate photometric measurements. Appendix D describes how to take a good flat field. It's not that easy, but we have found a technique that works well for us.
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Section 2 - Introduction to CCD Cameras
2.4.5. Pixels vs. Film Grains
Resolution of detail is determined, to a certain degree, by the size of the pixel in the detector used to gather the image, much like the grain size in film. The pixel size of the detector in the ST-10XE is 6.8 x 6.8 microns (1 micron = 0.001mm, 0.04 thousandths of an inch). In the ST-7XE and ST-8XE it is 9 x 9 microns, in the ST-9XE it's 20 x 20 microns and in the ST-2000XM it is 7.4 x 7.4 microns. However, the effects of seeing are usually the limiting factor in any good photograph or electronic image. On a perfect night with excellent optics an observer might hope to achieve sub-arcsecond seeing in short exposures, where wind vibration and tracking error are minimal. With the average night sky and good optics, you will be doing well to achieve stellar images in a long exposure of 3 to 6 arcseconds halfwidth. This will still result in an attractive image, though. Using an ST-7XE or ST-8XE camera with their 9 micron pixels, an 8" f/10 telescope will produce a single pixel angular subtense of 0.9 arcsecond. An 8" f/4 telescope will produce images of 2.5 arcseconds per pixel. If seeing affects the image by limiting resolution to 6 arcseconds, you would be hard pressed to see any resolution difference between the two focal lengths as you are mostly limited by the sky conditions. However, the f/4 image would have a larger field of view and more faint detail due to the faster optic. The ST-9XE, with its 20 micron pixels would have the same relationship at roughly twice the focal length or a 16 inch f/10 telescope. See table 4.4 for further information. A related effect is that, at the same focal length, larger pixels collect more light from nebular regions than small ones, reducing the noise at the expense of resolution. While many people think that smaller pixels are a plus, you pay the price in sensitivity due to the fact that smaller pixels capture less light. For example, the ST-9XE with its large 20 x 20 micron pixels captures five times as much light as the ST-7XE and ST-8XE's 9 micron square pixels. For this reason we provide 2x2 or 3x3 binning of pixels on most SBIG cameras. With the ST-7XE and ST8XE, for instance, the cameras may be configured for 18 or 27-micron square pixels. Binning is selected using the Camera Setup Command. It is referred to as resolution (High = 9µ2 pixels, Medium = 18µ2 pixels, Low = 27µ2 pixels). When binning is selected the electronic charge from groups of 2x2 or 3x3 pixels is electronically summed in the CCD before readout. This process adds no noise and may be particularly useful on the ST-10XE with its very small 6.8 micron pixels. Binning should be used if you find that your stellar images have a halfwidth of more than 3 pixels. If you do not bin, you are wasting sensitivity without benefit. Binning also shortens the download time. The halfwidth of a stellar image can be determined using the crosshairs mode. Find the peak value of a relatively bright star image and then find the pixels on either side of the peak where the value drops to 50% of the peak value (taking the background into account, if the star is not too bright). The difference between these pixel values gives the stellar halfwidth. Sometimes you need to interpolate if the halfwidth is not a discrete number of pixels. Another important consideration is the field of view of the camera. For comparison, the diagonal measurement of a frame of 35mm film is approximately 43mm, whereas the diagonal dimension of the ST-7XE chip is approximately 8 mm. The relative CCD sizes for all of the SBIG cameras and their corresponding field of view in an 8" f/10 telescope are given below:
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Section 2 - Introduction to CCD Cameras
Camera TC211 Tracking CCD TC237 Tracking CCD ST-5C ST-237A STV ST-7XE ST-8XE ST-9XE ST-10XE (XME) ST-1001E ST-2000XM 35mm Film
Array Dimensions Diagonal Field of View at 8" f/10 2.64 x 2.64 mm 3.73 mm 4.5 x 4.5 arcminutes 4.93 x 3.71 mm 6.17 mm 8.2 x 6.2 arcminutes 3.20 x 2.40 mm 4.00 mm 5.6 x 4.2 arcminutes 4.93 x 3.71 mm 6.17 mm 8.2 x 6.2 arcminutes 4.74 x 2.96 mm 5.58 mm 8.2 x 5.1 arcminutes 6.89 x 4.59 mm 8.28 mm 11.9 x 7.9 arcminutes 13.8 x 9.18 mm 16.6 mm 23.8 x 15.8 arcminutes 10.2 x 10.2 mm 14.4 mm 17.6 x 17.6 arcminutes 14.9 x 10.0 mm 17.9 mm 25.1 x 16.9 arcminutes 24.6 x 24.6 mm 34.8 mm 41.5 x 41.5 arcminutes 11.8 x 9.0 mm 14.8 mm 20.0 x 15.0 arcminutes 36 x 24 mm 43 mm 62 x 42 arcminutes Table 2.2 - CCD Array Dimensions
2.4.6. Guiding
Any time you are taking exposures longer than several seconds, whether you are using a film camera or a CCD camera, the telescope needs to be guided to prevent streaking. While modern telescope drives are excellent with PEC or PPEC, they will not produce streak-free images without adjustment every 30 to 60 seconds. The ST-7XE, ST-8XE, ST-9XE, ST-10XE, ST-10XME and ST-2000XM allow simultaneous guiding and imaging, called self-guiding (US Patent 5,525,793). This is possible because of the unique design employing 2 CCDs. One CCD guides the telescope while the other takes the image. This resolves the conflicting requirements of short exposures for guiding accuracy and long exposures for dim objects to be met, something that is impossible with single CCD cameras. Up to now the user either had to set up a separate guider or use Track and Accumulate to co-add several shorter images. The dual CCD design allows the guiding CCD access to the large aperture of the main telescope without the inconvenience of off-axis radial guiders. Not only are guide stars easily found, but the problems of differential deflection between guide scope and main scope eliminated. Track and Accumulate is another SBIG patented process (US #5,365,269) whereby short exposures are taken and added together with appropriate image shifts to align the images. It is supported by the ST-7XE, ST-8XE, ST-9XE, ST-10XE, ST-10XME and ST-2000XM camera software, but will generally not produce as good as results as self guiding, where the corrections are more frequent and the accumulated readout noise less. It is handy when no connection to the telescope drive is possible and also works best on cameras with larger pixels like the ST-9XE or for cameras with smaller pixels in binned mode. For cameras with smaller pixels imaging in high resolution mode such as the ST-7XE, ST-8XE, ST-10XE, ST-10XME and ST-2000XM, SBIG is proud to make self-guiding available to the amateur, making those long exposures required by the small pixel geometry easy to achieve!
2.5.
Electronic Imaging
Electronic images resemble photographic images in many ways. Photographic images are made up of many small particles or grains of photo sensitive compounds which change color or become a darker shade of gray when exposed to light. Electronic images are made up of many
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Section 2 - Introduction to CCD Cameras small pixels which are displayed on your computer screen to form an image. Each pixel is displayed as a shade of gray, or in some cases a color, corresponding to a number which is produced by the electronics and photo sensitive nature of the CCD camera. However, electronic images differ from photographic images in several important aspects. In their most basic form, electronic images are simply groups of numbers arranged in a computer file in a particular format. This makes electronic images particularly well suited for handling and manipulation in the same fashion as any other computer file. An important aspect of electronic imaging is that the results are available immediately. Once the data from the camera is received by the computer, the resulting image may be displayed on the screen at once. While Polaroid cameras also produce immediate results, serious astrophotography ordinarily requires hypersensitized or cooled film, a good quality camera, and good darkroom work to produce satisfying results. The time lag between exposure of the film and production of the print is usually measured in days. With electronic imaging, the time between exposure of the chip and production of the image is usually measured in seconds. Another very important aspect of electronic imaging is that the resulting data are uniquely suited to manipulation by a computer to bring out specific details of interest to the observer. In addition to the software provided with the camera, there are a number of commercial programs available that will process and enhance electronic images. Images may be made to look sharper, smoother, darker, lighter, etc. Brightness, contrast, size, and many other aspects of the image may be adjusted in real time while viewing the results on the computer screen. Two images may be inverted and electronically "blinked" to compare for differences, such as a new supernova, or a collection of images can be made into a large mosaic. Advanced techniques such as maximum entropy processing will bring out otherwise hidden detail. Of course, once the image is stored on a computer disk, it may be transferred to another computer just like any other data file. You can copy it or send it via modem to a friend, upload it to your favorite bulletin board or online service, or store it away for processing and analysis at some later date. We have found that an easy way to obtain a hard copy of your electronic image is to photograph it directly from the computer screen. You may also send your image on a floppy disk to a photo lab that has digital photo processing equipment for a professional print of your file. Make sure the lab can handle the file format you will send them. Printing the image on a printer connected to your computer is also possible depending on your software/printer configuration. There are a number of software programs available, which will print from your screen. However, we have found that without specialized and expensive equipment, printing images on a dot matrix or laser printer yields less than satisfactory detail. However, if the purpose is simply to make a record or catalog the image file for easy identification, a dot matrix or laser printer should be fine. Inkjet printers are getting very good, though.
2.6.
Black and White vs. Color
The first and most obvious appearance of a CCD image is that it is produced in shades of gray, rather than color. The CCD chip used in SBIG cameras itself does not discriminate color and the pixel values that the electronics read out to a digital file are only numbers proportional to the
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Section 2 - Introduction to CCD Cameras number of electrons produced when photons of any wavelength happen to strike its sensitive layers. Of course, there are color video cameras, and a number of novel techniques have been developed to make the CCD chip "see" color. The most common way implemented on commercial cameras is to partition the pixels into groups of three, one pixel in each triplet "seeing" only red, green or blue light. The results can be displayed in color. The overall image will suffer a reduction in resolution on account of the process. A newer and more complicated approach in video cameras has been to place three CCD chips in the camera and split the incoming light into three beams. The images from each of the three chips, in red, green and blue light is combined to form a color image. Resolution is maintained. For normal video modes, where there is usually plenty of light and individual exposures are measured in small fractions of a second, these techniques work quite well. However, for astronomical work, exposures are usually measured in seconds or minutes. Light is usually scarce. Sensitivity and resolution are at a premium. The most efficient way of imaging under these conditions is to utilize all of the pixels, collecting as many photons of any wavelength, as much of the time as possible. In order to produce color images in astronomy, the most common technique is to take three images of the same object using a special set of filters and then recombine the images electronically to produce a color composite or RGB color image. SBIG offers as an option an integrated motorized color filter wheel. The CFW8A color filter wheel is attached to the front of the camera in such a way that light entering the camera passes through the colored filter before it strikes the CCD. An object is then exposed using a red filter. The wheel is commanded to insert the green filter in place, and another image taken. Finally a blue image is taken. When all three images have been saved, they may be merged into a single color image using SBIG or third party color software.
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Section 3 - At the Telescope with a CCD Camera
3.
At the Telescope with a CCD Camera
This section describes what goes on the first time you take your CCD camera out to the telescope. You should read this section throughout before working at the telescope. It will help familiarize you with the overall procedure that is followed without drowning you in the details. It is recommended you first try operating the camera in comfortable, well lit surroundings to learn its operation.
3.1.
Step by Step with a CCD Camera
In the following sections we will go through the steps of setting up and using your CCD camera. The first step is attaching the camera to the telescope. The next step is powering up the camera and establishing a communication link to your computer. Then you will want to focus the system, find an object and take an image. Once you have your light image with a dark frame subtracted, you can display the image and process the results to your liking. Each of these steps is discussed in more detail below.
3.2.
Attaching the Camera to the Telescope
ST-7XE, ST-8XE, ST-9XE, ST-10XE, ST-10XME and ST-2000XM cameras are similar in configuration. The CCD head attaches to the telescope by slipping it into the eyepiece holder or attaching it via t-threads. A fifteen-foot cable runs from the head to the host computer's USB port. The camera is powered by a desktop power supply. Operation from a car or marine battery is possible using the optional 12V power supply or with a 12V to 110V power inverter. Connect the CCD head to the USB port of your computer using the supplied cable and insert the CCD Camera's nosepiece into your telescope's eyepiece holder. Fully seat the camera against the end of the draw tube so that once focus has been achieved you can swap out and replace the camera without having to refocus. Orient the camera so that the CCD's axes are aligned in Right Ascension and Declination. Use Figure 3.1 below showing the back of the optical head as a guide for the preferred orientation. Any orientation will work, but it is aggravating trying to center objects when the telescope axes don't line up fairly well with the CCD axes. Next, connect the power cable and plug in the desktop power supply. A few seconds after you establish a link using CCDOPS software, the red LED on the rear of the camera should glow and the fan should spin indicating that the firmware has been uploaded to the camera and it is ready for operation. We recommend draping the cables over the finderscope, saddle or mount to minimize cable perturbations of the telescope, and guard against the camera falling out of the drawtube to the floor. In the alternative, there is a ¼-20 threaded hole on the side plate of the camera used for tripod mounting. This is also a convenient place to attach a safety strap to prevent the camera from accidentally falling from the telescope. (Note that there are electronics inside the chassis that can be damaged by long bolts. Make sure nothing threaded into the tripod hole is longer than 0.200" / 5mm.) When possible, we also recommend using the T-Ring attachments for connecting the camera to the telescope, as the cameras are heavy.
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Section 3 - At the Telescope with a CCD Camera
Figure 3.1 Orientation of the Optical Head Viewed from Back. (Pixel 1,1 is at the upper left in this view)
3.3.
Establishing a Communications Link
After setting up the software and the camera as described in the previous sections, using CCDOPS software, establish a link to the camera by clicking on the "Establish Comm Link" command from the Camera menu. If the software is successful the "Link" field in the Status Window is updated to show the type of camera found. If the camera is not connected, powered up, or the USB port has not yet been properly selected, a message will be displayed indicating that the software failed to establish a link to the camera. If this happens, use the Communications Setup command in the Misc menu to configure the CCDOPS software for the USB. Then use the Establish COM Link command in the Camera Menu to establish communications with the camera. Note: It is not necessary to have a camera connected to your computer to run the software and display images already saved onto disk. It is only necessary to have a camera connected when you take new images. Once the COM link has been established you may need to set the camera's setpoint temperature in the Camera Setup command. The ST-7XE, ST-8XE, ST-9XE, ST-10XE, ST-10XME and ST2000XM power up regulating to whatever temperature the CCD is at, which in this case will be the ambient temperature. Use the Camera Setup command and choose a setpoint temperature approximately 30°C below the ambient temperature. Type in the setpoint, set the temperature control to active, and hit ENTER.
3.4.
Focusing the CCD Camera
Focusing a CCD camera can be a tedious operation, so a few hints should be followed. Before using the software to focus the camera the first time you should place a diffuser (such as scotch tape or ground glass) at the approximate location of the CCD's sensitive surface behind the
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Section 3 - At the Telescope with a CCD Camera eyepiece tube and focus the telescope on the moon, a bright planet or a distant street lamp. This preliminary step will save you much time in initially finding focus. The approximate distance behind the eyepiece tube for each of our CCD cameras is listed in Table 3.1 below: Camera ST-7/8/9/10XE ST-2000XM Distance ~0.92 inch ~0.92 inch
Diffuser
Table 3.1 - Camera Back Focus
Back Focus Distance from Table 3.1
To achieve fine focus, insert the CCD head into the eyepiece tube, taking care to seat it, and then enter the CCDOPS FOCUS mode. The Focus command automatically displays successive images on the screen as well as the peak brightness value of the brightest object in the field of view. Point the telescope at a bright star. Center the star image in the CCD, and adjust the focus until the star image is a small as can be discerned. Next, move the telescope to a field of fainter stars that are dimmer so the CCD is not saturated. Further adjust the focus to maximize the displayed star brightness in counts and minimize the star diameter. This can be tedious. It helps considerably if a pointer or marker is affixed to the focus knob so you can rapidly return to the best focus once you've gone through it. An exposure of 1 to 3 seconds is recommended to smooth out some of the atmospheric effects. While you can use the Full frame mode to focus, the frame rate or screen update rate can be increased significantly by using Planet mode. In Planet mode the Focus command takes a full image and then lets you position a variable sized rectangle around the star. On subsequent images the Planet mode only digitizes, downloads, and displays the small area you selected. The increase in frame rate is roughly proportional to the decrease in frame size, assuming you are using a short exposure. The telescope focus is best achieved by maximizing the peak value of the star image. You should be careful to move to a dimmer star if the peak brightness causes saturation. The saturation levels of the various resolution modes are shown in Table 3.2 below. Another point you should also be aware of is that as you approach a good focus, the peak reading can vary by 30% or so. This is due to the fact that as the star image gets small, where an appreciable percentage of the light is confined to a single pixel, shifting the image a half a pixel reduces the peak brightness as the star's image is split between the two pixels. The Kodak CCD pixels are so small that this is not likely to be a problem.
Resolution High Res
Saturation Counts ~20,000 for ST-7XE/8XE ABG Cameras, ~40,000 for ST-7XE/8XE Non ABG cameras, ~50,000 for ST-10XE Camera ~65,000 for ST-9XE/2000XM Cameras ~65,000 for ST-7/8/9/10/2000 Table 3.2 - Saturation Values
Med/Low Res
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Section 3 - At the Telescope with a CCD Camera Once the best focus is found, the focusing operation can be greatly shortened the second time by removing the CCD head, being careful not to touch the focus knob. Insert a high power eyepiece and slide it back and forth to find the best visual focus, and then scribe the outside of the eyepiece barrel. The next time the CCD is used the eyepiece should be first inserted into the tube to the scribe mark, and the telescope visually focused and centered on the object. At f/6 the depth of focus is only 0.005 inch, so focus is critical. An adapter may be necessary to allow the eyepiece to be held at the proper focus position. SBIG sells extenders for this purpose.
3.5.
Finding and Centering the Object
Once best focus is achieved, we suggest using "Dim" mode to help center objects. This mode gives a full field of view, but reduces resolution in order to increase the sensitivity, and digitization and download rate. If you have difficulty finding an object after obtaining good focus, check to be sure that the head is seated at best focus, then remove the head and insert a medium or low power eyepiece. Being careful not to adjust the focus knob on the telescope, slide the eyepiece in or out until the image appears in good focus. Then visually find and center the object, if it is visible to the eye. If not, use your setting circles carefully. Then, re-insert the CCD head and use FOCUS mode with an exposure time of about ten seconds, if it is dim. Center the object using the telescope hand controls. Note: With a 10 second exposure, objects like M51 or the Ring Nebula (M57) are easily detected with modest amateur telescopes. The cores of most galactic NGC objects can also be seen.
3.6.
Taking an Image
Take a CCD image of the object by selecting the Grab command and setting the exposure time. Start out with the Image size set to full and Auto Display and Auto contrast enabled. The camera will expose the CCD for the correct time, and digitize and download the image. One can also take a dark frame immediately before the light image using the Grab command. Because the ST-7XE, ST-8XE, ST-9XE, ST-10XE, ST-10XME and ST-2000XM have regulated temperature control, you may prefer to take and save separate dark images, building up a library at different temperatures and exposure times, and reusing them on successive nights. At the start it's probably easiest to just take the dark frames when you are taking the image. Later, as you get a feel for the types of exposures and setpoint temperatures you use, you may wish to build this library of dark frames.
3.7.
Displaying the Image
The image can be displayed on the computer screen using the graphics capability of your PC. Auto contrast can be selected and the software will pick background and range values which are usually good for a broad range of images or the background and range values can be optimized manually to bring out the features of interest. The image can also be displayed as a negative image, or can be displayed with smoothing to reduce the graininess. Once displayed, the image can be analyzed using crosshairs, or can be cropped or zoomed to suit your tastes.
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Section 3 - At the Telescope with a CCD Camera
3.8.
Processing the Image
If not done already, images can be improved by subtracting off a dark frame of equal exposure. You will typically do this as part of the Grab command although it can also be done manually using the Dark Subtract command. By subtracting the dark frame, pixels which have higher dark current than the average, i.e., "hot" pixels, are greatly suppressed and the displayed image appears much smoother. Visibility of faint detail is greatly improved. The CCDOPS program also supports the use of flat field frames to correct for vignetting and pixel to pixel variations, as well as a host of other image processing commands in the Utility menu. You can smooth or sharpen the image, flip it to match the orientation of published images for comparison, or remove hot or cold pixels.
3.9.
Advanced Capabilities
The following sections describe some of the advanced features of SBIG cameras. While you may not use these features the first night, they are available and a brief description of them is in order for your future reference.
3.9.1. Crosshairs Mode (Photometry and Astrometry)
Using the crosshair mode enables examination of images on a pixel by pixel basis for such measurements as Stellar and Diffuse Magnitude, and measurement of stellar positions. The 16 bit accuracy of SBIG systems produces beautiful low-noise images and allows very accurate brightness measurements to be made. With appropriate filters stellar temperature can be measured. In the crosshair mode, you move a small cross shaped crosshair around in the image using the keyboard or the mouse. As you position the crosshair, the software displays the pixel value beneath the crosshair and the X and Y coordinates of the crosshair. Also shown is the average pixel value for a box of pixels centered on the crosshair. You can change the size of the averaging box from 3x3 to 31x31 pixels to collect all the energy from a star.
3.9.2. Sub-Frame Readout in Focus
The Focus command offers several frame modes for flexibility and increased frame throughput. As previously discussed, the Full frame mode shows the entire field of view of the CCD with the highest resolution, digitizing and displaying all pixels. The "Dim" mode offers the same field of view but offers higher frame rates by reducing the image's resolution prior to downloading. The resolution is reduced by combining a neighboring block of pixels into a "super pixel". This reduces the download and display times proportionately, as well as improving sensitivity. It is great for finding and centering objects. The Planet mode is suggested if high spatial resolution is desired for small objects like planets. The Planet mode allows you to select a small sub-area of the entire CCD for image acquisition. The highest resolution is maintained but you don't have to waste time digitizing and processing pixels that you don't need. Again, the image throughput increase is proportional to the reduction in frame size. It can be entered from Auto mode.
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Section 3 - At the Telescope with a CCD Camera Another aspect of the Focus command and its various modes is the Camera Resolution2 setting in the Camera Setup command. Briefly, the Resolution setting allows trading off image resolution (pixel size) and image capture time while field of view is preserved. High resolution with smaller pixels takes longer to digitize and download than Low resolution with larger pixels. The cameras support High, Medium, Low and Auto resolution modes. The Auto mode is optimized for the Focus command. It automatically switches between Low resolution for Full frame mode to provide fast image acquisition, and High resolution for Planet mode to achieve critical focus. While Auto resolution is selected all images acquired using the GRAB command will be high resolution.
3.9.3. Track and Accumulate
An automatic Track and Accumulate mode (SBIG patented) is available in CCDOPS which simplifies image acquisition for the typical amateur with an accurate modern drive. These drives, employing PEC or PPEC technology and accurate gears, only need adjustment every 30 to 120 seconds. With Track and Accumulate the software takes multiple exposures and automatically co-registers and co-adds them. The individual exposures are short enough such that drive errors are not objectionable and the accumulated image has enough integrated exposure to yield a good signal to noise ratio. Operationally the camera will take an exposure, determine the position of a preselected star, co-register and co-add the image to the previous image, and then start the cycle over again. The software even allows making telescope corrections between images to keep the object positioned in the field of view. The resulting exposure is almost as good as a single long exposure, depending on the exposure used and sky conditions. The great sensitivity of the CCD virtually guarantees that there will be a usable guide star within the imaging CCD's field of view. This feature provides dramatic performance for the amateur, enabling long exposures with minimal setup!
3.9.4. Autoguiding and Self Guiding
The CCDOPS software allows the ST-7XE, ST-8XE, ST-9XE, ST-10XE, ST-10XME and ST2000XM cameras to be used as autoguiders and self-guiders through the commands in the Track menu. While these systems are not stand-alone like the ST-4, but require a host computer, they can accurately guide long duration astrophotographs and CCD images with equal or superior accuracy. Their sensitivity is much greater than an ST-4, and the computer display makes them easier to use. When functioning as an autoguider, the CCD camera repeatedly takes images of a guide star, measures the star's position to a fraction of a pixel accuracy, and corrects the telescope's position through the hand controller. While autoguiding alleviates the user of the tedious task of staring through an eyepiece for hours at a time, it is by no means a cure to telescope drive performance. All the things that were important for good manually guided exposures still exist, including a good polar alignment, rigid tubes that are free of flexure and a fairly good stable mount and drive corrector. Remember that the function of an auto guider is to correct for the small drive errors and long term drift, not to slew the telescope.
2
The Resolution setting in the Camera Setup command combines pixels before they are digitized. This is referred to as on-chip binning and offers increases in frame digitization rates.
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Section 3 - At the Telescope with a CCD Camera One of the reasons that SBIG autoguiders are often better than human guiders is that, rather than just stabbing the hand controller to bump the guide star back to the reticule, it gives a precise correction that is the duration necessary to move the guide star right back to its intended position. It knows how much correction is necessary for a given guiding error through the Calibrate Track command. The Calibrate Track command, which is used prior to autoguiding, exercises the telescope's drive corrector in each of the four directions, measuring the displacement of a calibration star after each move. Knowing the displacement and the duration of each calibration move calibrates the drive's correction speed. Once that is known, the CCD tracker gives the drive corrector precise inputs to correct for any guiding error. When self guiding is selected by invoking the Self Guiding command under the Track Menu, the computer prompts the user for the exposure time for the tracking and imaging CCDs. Once these are entered, the computer takes and displays an image with the tracking CCD, and the user selects a guide star using the mouse. Guide stars that are bright, but not saturating, and isolated from other stars are preferred. Once the star is selected, the computer starts guiding the telescope. When the telescope corrections settle down (usually once the backlash is all taken up in the declination drive) the user starts the exposure by striking the space bar. The computer then integrates for the prescribed time while guiding the telescope, and downloads the image for display. A calibration star should be chosen that is relatively bright and isolated. The calibration software can get confused if another star of comparable brightness moves onto the tracking CCD during a move. The unit will self guide on much fainter stars. Tests at SBIG indicate that the probability of finding a usable guide star on the tracking CCD is about 95% at F/6.3, in regions of the sky away from the Milky Way. If a guide star is not found the telescope position should be adjusted, or the camera head rotated by a multiple of 90 degrees to find a guide star. We recommend that the user first try rotating the camera 180 degrees. Rotating the camera will require recalibration of the tracking function. [Note: CCDSoftV5 software allows SBIG cameras to calibrate and track in any orientation, similar to the STV video autoguider].
3.9.5. Auto Grab
The Auto Grab command allows you to take a series of images at a periodic interval and log the images to disk. This can be invaluable for monitoring purposes such as asteroid searches or stellar magnitude measurements. You can even take sub-frame images to save disk space if you don't need the full field of view.
3.9.6. Color Imaging
The field of CCD color imaging is relatively new but expanding rapidly. Since all SBIG cameras are equipped with monochromatic CCDs, discriminating only light intensity, not color, some provision must be made in order to acquire color images. SBIG offers a color filter wheel, the CFW-8, which provides this capability for the ST-7XE, ST-8XE, ST-9XE, ST-10XE, ST-10XME and ST-2000XM. The color filter wheel allows remotely placing interference filters in front of the CCD in order to take multiple images in different color bands. These narrow band images are then combined to form a color image. With the SBIG system, a Red, Green and Blue filter are used to acquire
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Section 3 - At the Telescope with a CCD Camera three images of the object. The resulting images are combined to form a tri-color image using CCDOPS, CCDSoftV5 or third party software. Color imaging places some interesting requirements on the user that bear mentioning. First, many color filters have strong leaks in the infrared (IR) region of the spectrum, a region where CCDs have relatively good response. If the IR light is not filtered out then combining the three images into a color image can give erroneous results. If your Blue filter has a strong IR leak (quite common) then your color images will look Blue. For this reason, SBIG incorporates an IR blocking filter stack with the three color band filters. Second, since you have narrowed the CCD's wavelength response with the interference filters, longer exposures are required to achieve a similar signal to noise compared to what one would get in a monochrome image with wide spectral response. This is added to the fact that tri-color images require a higher signal to noise overall to produce pleasing images. With black and white images your eye is capable of pulling large area detail out of random noise quite well, whereas with color images your eye seems to get distracted by the color variations in the noisy areas of the image. The moral of the story is that while you can achieve stunning results with CCD color images, it is quite a bit more work.
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Section 4 Camera Hardware
4.
Camera Hardware
This section describes the modular components that make up the CCD Camera System and how they fit into the observatory, with all their connections to power and other equipment.
4.1.
System Components
The ST-7XE, ST-8XE, ST-9XE, ST-10XE, ST-10XME and ST-2000XM CCD cameras consist of four major components: the CCD Sensors and Preamplifier, the Readout/Clocking Electronics, the Microcontroller, and the power supply. All the electronics are packaged in the optical head in these cameras with an external desktop power supply. The CCDs, Preamplifier, and Readout Electronics are mounted in the front of the optical head. The optical head interfaces to the telescope through a 1.25 inch (or larger) draw tube, sliding into the telescope's focus mechanism. The placement of the preamplifier and readout electronics close to the CCD is necessary to achieve good noise performance. The Microcontroller is housed in the rear of the Optical Head along with the interface logic to the PC and Telescope.
4.2.
Connecting the Power
The desktop power supply is designed to run off voltages found in most countries (90 to 240 VAC). In the field however, battery operation may be the most logical choice. In that case you need to use the optional 12V power supply or a 12VDC to 110 VAC power inverter.
4.3.
Connecting to the Computer
The ST-7XE, ST-8XE, ST-9XE, ST-10XE, ST-10XME and ST-2000XM CCD Cameras are supplied with a 15 foot cable to connect the system to the host computer. The connection is between the camera and the Host Computer's USB port. If it is necessary or desirable to extend the distance between the camera and the computer, third party USB extenders such as the "Ranger" made by Icron (http://www.icron.com) may be used for remote operation up to 500 meters.
4.4.
Connecting the Relay Port to the Telescope
The ST-7XE, ST-8XE, ST-9XE, ST-10XE, ST-10XME and ST-2000XM camera systems can be used as autoguiders where the telescope's position is periodically corrected for minor variations in the RA and DEC drives. The host software functions as an autoguider in three modes: the Track mode, the SBIG patented Track and Accumulate mode, and the SBIG patented Self Guided mode (except for the ST-1001E). In the Track mode and Self Guided mode the host software corrects the telescope as often as once every second to compensate for drift in the mount and drive system. The host software and the CCD camera operate in tandem to repeatedly take exposures of the designated guide star, calculate its position to a tenth of a pixel accuracy, and then automatically activate the telescope's controller to move the star right back to its intended position. It does this tirelessly to guide long duration astrophotographs. In the Track and Accumulate mode the software takes a series of images and automatically co-registers and co-adds the images to remove the effects of telescope drift.
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Section 4 Camera Hardware
Typically you would take ten 1 minute "snapshots" to produce an image that is comparable to a single 10 minute exposure except that no guiding is required. The reason no guiding is required is that with most modern telescope mounts the drift over the relatively short 1 minute interval is small enough to preserve round star images, a feat that even the best telescope mounts will not maintain over the longer ten minute interval. The Track and Accumulate software does allow correction of the telescope position in the interval between snapshots to keep the guide star grossly positioned within the field of view, but it is the precise co-registration of images that accounts for the streakless images. The host software and the CCD camera control the telescope through the 9-pin Telescope port on the camera. This port provides active low open collector signals to the outside world. By interfacing the camera to the telescope's controller the CPU is able to move the telescope as you would: by effectively closing one of the four switches that slews the telescope. Note: You only need to interface the camera's Telescope port to your telescope if you are planning on using the camera system as an autoguider or selfguider, or feel you need to have the Track and Accumulate command make telescope corrections between images because your drive has a large amount of long term drift. Some recent model telescopes (like the Celestron Ultima and the Meade LX200) have connectors on the drive controller that interface directly to the camera's TTL level Telescope port. All that's required is a simple cable to attach the 9 pin Telescope port to the telescope's telephone jack type CCD connector. SBIG includes its TIC-78 (Tracking Interface Cable Adapter) for this express purpose although it is easy to modify a standard 6-pin telephone cable for interface to the Telescope port (see Appendix A for specific pin outs, etc.). The TIC-78 plugs into the 9-pin port on the ST-7XE, ST-8XE, ST-9XE, ST-10XE, ST-10XME and ST-2000XM, and a standard phone cable, which we supply, connects the adapter to the telescope drive. Note: phone cables come in a few variations. We use the six-pin cable, and the pin order is reversed left to right relative to the connector from one end to the other. This is identical to what is typically sold at Radio Shack stores as an extension cable.
4.4.1 Using Mechanical Relays
Older telescopes generally require modifying the hand controller to accept input from the camera's Telescope port. The difficulty of this task varies with the drive corrector model and may require adding external relays if your drive corrector will not accept TTL level signals. We maintain a database of instructions for the more popular telescopes that we will gladly share with you. For a minimal charge will also modify your hand controllers if you feel you do not have the skills necessary to accomplish such a task. We sell a mechanical relay box that interfaces to the ST-7XE, ST-8XE, ST-9XE, ST-10XE, ST-10XME and ST-2000XM, and will interface to the older drives. Contact SBIG for more information. In general, the camera has four signals that are used in tracking applications. There is one output line for each of the four correction directions on the hand controller (North, South, East and West). Our previous cameras had internal relays for the telescope interface, but with the proliferation of TTL input telescopes the relays were removed (We do offer an external relay adapter accessory). The following paragraphs describe the general-purpose interface to the telescope which involves using external relays.
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Section 4 Camera Hardware
In our older camera models and in the optional relay adapter accessory, each of the relays has a Common, a Normally Open, and a Normally Closed contact. For example, when the relay is inactivated there is a connection between the Common and the Normally Closed contact. When the relay is activated (trying to correct the telescope) the contact is between the Common and the Normally Open contacts. If your hand controller is from a relatively recent model telescope it probably has four buttons that have a "push to make" configuration. By "push to make" we mean that the switches have two contacts that are shorted together when the button is pressed. If that's the case then it is a simple matter of soldering the Common and Normally Open leads of the appropriate relay to the corresponding switch, without having to cut any traces, as shown in Figure 4.1 below.
A: Unmodified Push to Make Switch B: Modified Push to Make Switch
c common
switch
switch
relay
nc no
normally open
Figure 4.1 - Push to Make Switch Modification Another less common type of switch configuration (although it seems to have been used more often in older hand controllers) involve hand controller buttons that use both a push to make contact in conjunction with a push to break contact. The modification required for these switches involves cutting traces or wires in the hand controller. Essentially the relay's Normally Open is wired in parallel with the switch (activating the relay or pushing the hand controller button closes the Normally Open or Push to Make contact) while at the same time the Normally Closed contact is wired in series with the switch (activating the relay or pushing the hand controller button opens the Normally Closed or the Push to Break contact). This type of switch modification is shown in Figure 4.2 below.
A: Unmodified Push to Make/Break Switch
c common
B: Modified Push to Make/Break Switch
c common c nc
switch
nc no normally open normally closed nc no
relay
no normally open normally closed
Figure 4.2- Push to Make/Break Modification The last type of hand controller that is moderately common is the resistor joystick. In this joystick each axis of the joystick is connected to a potentiometer or variable resistor. Moving the joystick handle left or right rotates a potentiometer, varying the resistance between a central "wiper" contact and the two ends of a fixed resistor. The relays can be interfaced to the joystick
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Section 4 Camera Hardware
as shown in Figure 4.3 below. Essentially the relays are used to connect the wire that used to attach to the wiper to either end of the potentiometer when the opposing relays are activated.
A
+ relay wiper
B A C nc B c no C
- relay
c nc no
potentiometer A: Unmodified Joystick
B: Modified Joystick
Figure 4.3 - Joystick Modification A slight variation on the joystick modification is to build a complete joystick eliminator as shown in Figure 4.4 below. The only difference between this and the previous modification is that two fixed resistors per axis are used to simulate the potentiometer at its mid position. You do not need to make modifications to the joystick; you essentially build an unadjustable version. This may be easier than modifying your hand controller if you can trace out the wiring of your joystick to its connector.
A
+ relay
c A
- relay
c nc nc no
wiper
B C B
no
R potentiometer A: Unmodified Joystick
C
R/2
R/2
B: Joystick Eliminator
Figure 4.4- Joystick Eliminator
4.5.
Modular Family of CCD Cameras
With the introduction of the ST-6 CCD Camera in 1992 SBIG started a line of high quality, low noise, modular CCD cameras. The ST-7E, ST-8E and ST-9E were a second family of modular CCD cameras. The ST-10E allowed for upgrades to a faster USB interface and larger tracking CCD. The benefits of a modular line of CCD Cameras are many fold. Users can buy as much CCD Camera as they need or can afford, with the assurance that they can upgrade to higher performance systems in the future. With a modular approach, camera control software like CCDOPS can easily support all models. This last point assures a wide variety of third party
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Section 4 Camera Hardware
software. Software developers can produce one package for the many users across the model line instead of different packages for each of the cameras. While the SBIG cameras have many similarities, there are also important differences between the products. Table 4.2 below highlights the differences from a system's standpoint: Camera ST-5C ST-237A STV ST-6 ST-7/8/9/10/1001/2000 A/D Temperature Electromechanical Resolution Regulation Shutter/Shutter Wheel/Vane 16 bits Closed Loop Shutter Wheel 16 bits Closed Loop Shutter Wheel 10+2 bits Closed Loop Shutter Wheel 16 bits Closed Loop Vane 16 bits Closed Loop Shutter Table 4.2 - System Features Electronic Shutter
0.01 second 0.01 second 0.001 second 0.01 second
None
How these features affect the average user are discussed in the paragraphs below: A/D Resolution - This is a rough indication of the camera's dynamic range. Higher precision A/D Converters are able to more finely resolve differences in light levels, or for larger CCDs with greater full well capacities, they are able to handle larger total charges with the same resolution. Temperature Regulation - In an open loop system like the original ST-4 the CCD cooling is either turned on or turned off. While this provides for adequate cooling of the CCD, the CCD's temperature is not regulated which makes it important to take dark frames in close proximity to the associated light frame. Closed loop systems regulate the CCD's temperature to an accuracy of ±0.1° C making dark frames useful over longer periods. Electromechanical Vane - Having the vane in the ST-6 means the host software can effectively "cover the telescope" and take dark frames remotely, without the user having to get up and physically cover the telescope. Electromechanical Shutter - Having the shutter in the ST-7E/8E/9E/10E/1001E gives streakfree readout and allows taking dark frames without having to cover the telescope. While the minimum exposure is 0.11 seconds, repeatability and area uniformity are excellent with SBIG's unique unidirectional shutter. Shutter Wheel - The Shutter Wheel, used in conjunction with the camera's Electronic shutter, allows you to cover the CCD for taking dark frames and in the case of the ST-5C/237/237A allows replacement with a mini internal color filter wheel. Electronic Shutter - Having an electronic shutter involves having a CCD with a frame transfer region. These CCDs actually have an array that has twice the number of rows advertised, where the bottom half is open to the light (referred to as the Image Area), and the top half is covered with a metalization layer (referred to as the Storage Area). In frame transfer CCDs at the end of the exposure, the pixel data from the Image Area is transferred into the Storage Area very rapidly where it can be read out with a minimum of streaking.
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Section 4 Camera Hardware
In addition to the system level differences between the various cameras, Table 4.3 below quantifies the differences between different CCDs used in the cameras:
Camera TC211 Tracking CCD TC237 Tracking CCD ST-5C ST-237A STV ST-7XE ST-8XE ST-9XE ST-10XE, XME ST-1001E ST-2000XM CCD Used TC-211 TC-237 TC-255 TC-237 TC-237 KAF0401E KAF1602E KAF0261E KAF3200E KAF1001E KAI2000M Number of Pixels 192 x 164 657 x 495 320 x 240 657 x 495 320 x 200 765 x 510 1530 x 1020 512 x 512 2184 x 1472 1024 x 1024 1600 x 1200 Pixel Dimensions 13.75 x 16 µ 7.4 x 7.4 µ 10 x 10 µ 7.4 x 7.4 µ 14.8 x 14.8 µ 9x9µ 9x9µ 20 x 20 µ 6.8 x 6.8 µ 24 x 24 µ 7.4 x 7.4 µ Array Dimension 2.6 x 2.6 mm 4.9 x 3.7 mm 3.2 x 2.4 mm 4.9x 3.7 mm 4.7 x 3.0 mm 6.9 x 4.6 mm 13.8 x 9.2 mm 10.2 x 10.2 mm 14.9 x 10.0 mm 24.6 x 24.6 mm 11.8 x 9.0 mm Read Noise 12e- rms 12e- rms 20e- rms 15e- rms 17e- rms 15e- rms 15e- rms 13e- rms 11e- rms 16e- rms 15e- rms Full Well Capacity 150Ke20Ke50Ke20Ke20Ke50/100Ke-3 50/100Ke-4 180Ke77Ke180Ke45Ke-
Table 4.3- CCD Differences How these various specifications affect the average user is described in the following paragraphs: Number of Pixels - The number of pixels in the CCD affects the resolution of the final images. The highest resolution device is best but it does not come without cost. Larger CCDs cost more money and drive the system costs up. They are harder to cool, require more memory to store images, take longer to readout, etc. With typical PC and Macintosh computer graphics resolutions, the CCDs used in the SBIG cameras offer a good trade off between cost and resolution, matching the computer's capabilities well. Pixel Dimensions - The size of the individual pixels themselves really plays into the user's selection of the system focal length. Smaller pixels and smaller CCDs require shorter focal length telescopes to give the same field of view that larger CCDs have with longer focal length telescopes. Smaller pixels can give images with higher spatial resolution up to a point. When the pixel dimensions (in arcseconds of field of view) get smaller than roughly half the seeing, decreasing the pixel size is essentially throwing away resolution. Another aspect of small pixels is that they have smaller full well capacities. For your reference, if you want to determine the field of view for a pixel or entire CCD sensor you can use the following formula:
8.12x size (µm) Field of view (arcseconds) = focal length (inches) Field of view (arcseconds) =
20.6x size(um) focal length(cm)
3
The Kodak CCDs (KAF0400 and KAF1600) are available with or without Antiblooming Protection. Units with the Antiblooming Protection have one-half the full well capacity of the units without it.
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